Online Security, a global provider of computer forensics and information technology risk mitigation since 1997   Original Source:    http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/factsheet/homeland.htm Technologies for Improved Homeland Security The Technology Administration’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has provided measurements, standards, and technical advice for many years to help federal, state, and local agencies and the private sector protect U.S. citizens from terrorist, military, natural disaster, and other types of threats. In the 1930s, NIST forensic experts used their two decades of experience solving crimes to help establish the FBI’s laboratory. During World War II, the Institute provided technical advice on everything from the atom bomb to the paper used in war maps. In the aftermath of the Sept. 11 attacks, NIST is playing a key role in enhancing the nation’s ability to prevent and respond to terrorism. Through approximately 120 ongoing and newly initiated research and standards development projects, NIST is helping the millions of individuals in law enforcement, military, science, emergency services, information technology, airport and building security, and other areas protect the American public from terrorist threats. Below are examples of NIST projects related to improving Homeland Security. Strengthening structural and fire safety Improved materials for structures Cybersecurity standards and technologies Enhanced threat detection and protection Tools for law enforcement Emergency response Strengthening structural and fire safety standards An essential tool in the fight against terrorism is a solidly built and protected infrastructure. NIST is contributing to this goal on a number of fronts aimed at strengthening structural and fire safety standards in buildings. Investigation of World Trade Center buildings’ collapse NIST has launched a $16 million, 24-month federal building and fire safety investigation to study the structural failure and subsequent progressive collapse of several World Trade Center (WTC) buildings following the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, in New York City. The study of WTC Buildings 1 and 2 (“the Twin Towers” and WTC Building 7 will focus on the building construction, the materials used, and all of the technical conditions that contributed to the outcome of the WTC disaster. The objectives of the NIST investigation are to determine technically: why and how WTC Buildings 1, 2, and 7 collapsed following the initial impact of the aircraft; why the injuries and fatalities were so low or high depending on location (by studying all technical aspects of fire protection, occupant behavior, evacuation, and emergency response); what procedures and practices were used in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the WTC buildings; and which building and fire codes, standards, and practices warrant revision and are still in use. To help in the WTC investigation, scientists and engineers will use a NIST-developed computational model to re-create aspects of the fires that occurred following the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center. The model, Fire Dynamic Simulator, and a software package, called SmokeView, have been used previously to aid in the re-creation of building fires that resulted in firefighter fatalities. Preliminary calculations have demonstrated the model’s ability to shed light on the impact of building geometry, fuel distribution, and wind conditions on the smoke and fire flows within and outside the trade towers. Such information may be helpful to firefighters in predicting the likely behavior of future large-scale fires in high-rise buildings. NIST has extensive experience and expertise in conducting disaster investigations following structural/construction failures, fires, and natural disasters, including earthquake, hurricanes, and tornadoes. More information on NIST’s WTC investigation is available online at http://wtc.nist.gov. The investigation is part of a broader NIST response plan to the WTC disaster. In addition to the investigation, NIST is planning to conduct two related programs concurrently: a multiyear research and development program to provide the technical basis for improved building and fire codes, standards, and practices; and an industry-led dissemination and technical assistance program that will provide practical guidance and tools to better prepare facility owners, contractors, designers, and emergency personnel to respond to future disasters. On-site survey of Pentagon structural and fire damage In October 2001, a NIST expert in building and fire research participated in an on-site survey of the Pentagon structural and fire damage as part of a team organized by the American Society of Civil Engineers and led by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Army Corps of Engineers subsequently funded a team of NIST experts to review and evaluate the performance of the Pentagon’s structural system under fire, the ability of its heating and ventilating system to control smoke movement, and the response of its fire protection systems to the attack and subsequent fires. NIST experts presented a report to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in November 2001, with recommendations for rebuilding and retrofitting the Pentagon that would improve the Pentagon’s resistance to similar attacks. Anthrax air flow study Following the release of anthrax spores in the Hart Senate Office Building in Washington, D.C., in October 2001, NIST engineers provided help in understanding how spores may have spread through the buildings. NIST experts in ventilation systems and air quality used a sophisticated NIST-developed com-puter model to understand different ways in which air flow may have transported spores. The results of the modeling were used in developing decontamination strategies. NIST’s expertise could be applied to the anthrax spore problem quickly because it has long worked to improve indoor air quality by developing computer modeling programs to show how pollutants, smoke, and contaminants are transported through indoor air. Coordinated national strategy for protecting critical infrastructures The Sept. 11 terrorist attacks have illustrated the need for a coordinated, public-private sector approach to protecting the nation’s critical physical infrastructure. This includes buildings of all types; transportation systems such as airports, seaports, roads, and bridges; utility networks, including power plants, dams, water and sewage plants, and waterways; health care facilities; telecommunications; and other facilities used in financial, manufacturing, defense, and information technology operations. NIST is actively discussing the development of a coordinated national strategy in this area with the relevant agencies—FEMA, the Department of Defense, the Department of Transportation, and the General Services Administration; state and local building and emergency management officials; and private organizations. Improved materials for structures NIST is helping the engineering and construction industries improve building materials, enabling stronger, longer-lasting structures, be they bridges, buildings, or off-shore oil rigs. NIST materials scientists are collaborating with industry and academic researchers on test methods for high-performance concrete and advanced polymer composites that will enable development of superior products. Researchers are developing techniques to characterize the microstructural features of fiber-reinforced polymers and to correlate the performance of the materials with their microstructural features. Cybersecurity standards and technologies Americans depend on information technology (IT) and systems more than ever before, but many IT systems are at risk of being exploited for harmful purposes due to inadequate security. NIST helps secure electronic information through programs that develop national and international standards for IT security and improve awareness of and capabilities for security solutions. For instance, NIST develops cryptographic standards and methods for protecting the integrity, confidentiality, and authenticity of information resources. NIST’s first encryption standard has been used widely in the public and private sectors since 1977. In December 2001, NIST and the Department of Commerce announced the newest and strongest-yet encryption standard for the protection of sensitive, non-classified electronic information. Although the Advanced Encryption Standard, or AES, was developed for the government, the private sector is expected to use it as well to safeguard financial transactions and ensure the privacy of digital information—from medical records and tax information to PIN numbers—for millions of Americans. Individual consumers, financial brokers, and large corporations rely on NIST encryption standards for safe and secure electronic transactions, whether worth just a few cents or several billion dollars. NIST also works with government and industry to establish more secure systems and networks by developing, managing, and promoting security assessment tools, techniques, services, and supporting programs for testing, evaluation, and validation. For example, NIST helps companies incorporate NIST encryption algorithms into commercial products by testing and validating their correct implementation. In addition, NIST develops guidelines to address topics such as risk management, security program management, certification and accreditation, and security training and awareness. The documents produced by NIST on securing information are used throughout the public and private sectors. For example, NIST, in co-sponsorship with the Small Business Administration and the National Infrastructure Protection Center, and using NIST publications as core materials, holds regional workshops to advise small businesses and not-for-profit organizations on practical tools and techniques that can help them assess, enhance, and maintain the security of their systems. Cybersecurity of electric power and industrial control systems The widespread use of IT for remote monitoring and control of the electric power system and for controlling industrial processes in the oil and gas, water, chemical, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, pulp and paper, and other industries, has unintentionally introduced security vulnerabilities. NIST is working with companies and industry organizations to identify the types of vulnerabilities that exist and develop security requirements for the real-time systems that control the power grid and critical industrial production processes. A Process Control Security Requirements Forum has been established to identify and assess threats and risks to process control information and functions, make and promote the adoption of security requirements recommendations, and promote security awareness and integration of security considerations in the life cycle of electric power and industrial process control systems. NIST also is working with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the International Electrotechnical Commission, and the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society to incorporate security requirements into the standards relevant to electric power and industrial control systems. Enhanced threat detection and protection Ensuring proper doses for irradiation of mail NIST is a member of a White House task force led by the Office of Science and Technology Policy to ensure that mail intended for Congress and other federal government offices is properly irradiated to kill anthrax bacteria. Very shortly after the first discovery of anthrax in mail to Senator Tom Daschle, the U.S. Postal Service identified commercial facilities in Lima, Ohio, and Bridgeport, N.J., that could successfully irradiate mail to help ensure its safety. These facilities use high-energy electron sources to sterilize a wide range of items, more typically medical instruments and supplies. Such radiation destroys biological agents without affecting most other materials, so the mail is made safe without damage. NIST physicists certified for the task force that these facilities could sterilize mail against anthrax effectively. NIST collaborated with the U.S. Postal Service and the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute (AFRRI) to determine what dose of radiation produced at the two facilities would be adequate to kill anthrax and yet not damage most mail items. NIST has a long history of involvement in providing calibrations, standards, and measurement methods to ensure accurate radiation doses for X-ray machines, mammography, radiopharmaceuticals, and other products. The high radiation doses required to kill the anthrax caused some deterioration of the paper in the mail with the subsequent release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can be irritating to mail room personnel. NIST is working with AFRRI, the Postal Service, the National Archives, and the Library of Congress to minimize the release of the VOCs and to understand quantitatively the VOC chemistry and the damage to the paper in the mail. The electron irradiation process has limited penetrating power and thus cannot be used to sanitize parcels that have larger volumes and contain dense objects. For parcel package decontamination, the team from NIST, AFRRI, and the Postal Service turned to high-energy X-ray irradiation, which is much more penetrating but requires a longer irradiation time to deliver the needed dose. Using procedures analogous to those used in the certification of electron beam irradiation, the White House task force validated the decontamination of parcel packages using high-energy X rays. NIST also is advising federal officials on possible construction of a dedicated radiation source near Washington, D.C., for future mail sanitation. Weapon detection technologies and standards Metal detectors used in airports, courthouses, and other buildings produce magnetic fields that interact with metallic weapons or other hidden metallic contraband items, a quality that can be measured or used to generate an alarm. These devices must be able to detect such metal objects repeatedly and often in rapid succession. They also have to generate fields strong enough to do the job without disturbing medical electronic devices such as implanted cardiac defibrillators. With funding from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), NIST researchers have completed work on new performance standards and operational requirements for both walk-through and hand-held metal detectors. Several additional federal agencies—including the Transportation Security Administration and the Federal Bureau of Prisons—and dozens of state and local law enforcement and corrections agencies contributed ideas to the project. The researchers created a sophisticated measurement system that uses specialized computer software to evaluate detector effectiveness. Test objects also were developed to duplicate the response of various threat items, such as razor blades, handguns, and handcuff keys. Another NIST research group has received funding from the NIJ and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to investigate a new technology for weapons detection based on low-energy, millimeter-size electromagnetic waves. The technology, which currently is under development, involves a radar-like apparatus that could illuminate a group of people or individuals. Clothing is transparent to the waves, but objects concealed beneath the clothing are not. Waves striking guns, knives, and plastic explosives would be reflected back and directed through a set of optics, which focus the radiation onto an array of tiny antennas mounted on a silicon wafer. The antennas are so small that 120 can fit onto a single wafer. An electronics package would convert the concentrated electromagnetic radiation into images, and these would be projected onto a laptop computer screen. Millimeter-size waves are expected to locate concealed weapons consistently, without simultaneously creating detailed images of the body. NIST is working to understand fully performance issues for such detectors so that it will be able to assist the FAA and the NIJ in judging the sensitivity and reliability of commercial products. Detection of chemical, biological, radiological, and other threats As the primary reference laboratory for the United States, NIST develops standards, protocols, and new test methods to ensure that chemical and biological compounds can be measured accurately. This includes extensive, ongoing programs for the detection of chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive threats. NIST researchers work to continually improve methods and data for ultra-sensitive detection of chemicals, including chemical warfare agents. This research involves both widely used techniques, such as mass spectrometry and chromatography, as well as smaller, portable devices designed to detect more specific biological or chemical agents. For example, a NIST database developed with the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institutes of Health is included with most mass spectrometers sold by major manufacturers today. This database provides the mass spectral information—a kind of chemical fingerprint—needed to definitively identify more than 140,000 different compounds. This database is essential for rapidly identifying specific chemical threats in real time, at airport security checkpoints, for example. NIST also is developing mass spectral libraries for use in the identification of bacteria and other complex protein mixtures that may be used in a biological attack. Military personnel wear gas masks for protection against chemical and biological assault. With funding from the U.S. Army, NIST is verifying the accuracy of test equipment used to determine if a soldier’s gas mask is protecting properly. A gas mask that does not fit well may leak around the edges, there may be small holes in the mask, or the filter may be malfunctioning. To test for such problems, the Army uses a commercial calibration system that compares the concentration of airborne particulate matter inside the soldier’s mask while it is being worn with the ambient concentration of particulates outside the mask. Ordinary small particulates in the air serve as a stand-in for chemical or biological agents like mustard gas or anthrax because their flow behavior is very similar. NIST scientists are working to ensure accurate calibration of test equipment by developing a mechanism to deliver a well-characterized aerosol source as well as accurate and reproducible measurement capabilities. Two complementary analytical approaches have been developed by NIST; the first uses electron microscopy and imaging processing to count particles, whereas the second is much faster and uses the measurement of electrical current flow of deliberately charged particles to calculate the particle concentration. Both methods are in the final stages of intercomparison and validation and will result in improved and more reliable calibration of military gas masks. Other NIST projects are aimed at creating new, portable measurement devices that can detect agents such as sulfur-mustard gas compounds, sarin and other nerve agents, and explosive compounds. For example, gas microsensors based on NIST-patented research show exceptional promise as a low-cost, widely deployable technology for detecting a range of chemical agents that could be used in terrorist attacks. Therefore, NIST is working with the Defense Threat Reduction Agency on the creation of microsensor arrays that use selective thin films and mini-heaters embedded in integrated circuits to identify chemical agents at trace levels. The NIST-developed microsensor arrays have been used successfully to detect simulated mustard and nerve agents and, more recently, the chemical agents themselves. NIST also has initiated work with the Food and Drug Administration on the development of fluorescent standards for microarray-based clinical diagnostics to detect pathogenic microorganisms in the environment. A NIST collaboration with Virginia Polytechnic and State University has been developing a cell-based microfluidic sensor for the detection of environmental toxins in water streams. And a NIST collaboration with the FAA is aimed at checking the performance of systems that sense whether an airline passenger is carrying explosives by identifying minute quantities of particles and vapors as the person walks through a portal device. NIST is using its expertise in a specialized form of mass spectrometry to identify, count, and size explosive particles collected by such detection systems. Both the fear of chemical or biochemical exposure, and actual exposure, are real health concerns, so measurement capabilities need to be developed to provide accurate and unambiguous results. False positives, inaccurate, and/or ambiguous results are an invitation to chaos. NIST is working with other federal agencies to improve the quality and comparability of measurements for both chemical and biological agents. For example, NIST is working with the Department of Defense on the use of specialized mass spectrometric techniques for the identification of bacteria and other microorganisms. NIST is focusing on standardization of methods for sample preparation and data interpretation of results. NIST also has initiated a collaboration to assist the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in support of their Counter-Terrorism Laboratory Network, which includes laboratories in five states with plans to expand the number of states participating in the coming years. Additional NIST projects involve improving methods to: use laser-based techniques to enhance detection of chemical agents, use proteins to detect low levels of specific biological pathogens, rapidly sequence DNA for quick identification and for tracing the sources of pathogens, and monitor medical markers in routine urine tests as an early warning system that a population has been exposed to biological pathogens. Tools for law enforcement For most of its 100-year history, NIST has worked closely with law enforcement, corrections, and criminal justice agencies to help improve the technologies available for solving and detecting crimes and for protecting law enforcement officers. Starting in 1913, a NIST scientist named Wilmer Souder pioneered the use of scientific techniques for forensic investigations and helped the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) establish its crime laboratory in 1932. Since the early 1970s, NIST has issued more than a dozen law enforcement standards that help law enforcement agencies ensure that the equipment they purchase and the technologies they use are safe, dependable, and effective. Standards for biometrics In light of the Sept. 11 attacks, NIST efforts to improve the technologies and standards available for definitive identification of individuals—techniques such as fingerprinting, face recognition, and DNA analysis—have taken on added urgency. For a number of years, NIST has provided biometric test data and standard measurement methods for fingerprints and, more recently, face recognition. This work is being extended to include the specific biometric systems and scenarios required for visa systems under the Patriot Act, as amended by the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act. NIST has statutory responsibilities to develop and certify a technology standard that can be used to verify the identity of persons applying for a U.S. visa or using a visa to enter the country. The Department of Justice and Department of State also expect NIST to certify the accuracy of specific government and commercial systems being considered for use in this visa system. This program will produce standard measurements of accuracy for biometric systems, standard XML-based scoring software, and accuracy measurements for specific biometrics required for the system scenarios mandated under the Border Security Act. This work will have wide impact beyond the mandated systems; standard test methods are likely to be accepted as international standards, and discussions are under way concerning the use of these same standards for airport security. NIST has decades of experience improving human identification systems. For more than 30 years, NIST computer scientists have helped the FBI improve the automation process for matching “rolled” fingerprints taken by law enforcement agencies or “latent” prints found at crime scenes against the FBI’s master file of fingerprints. NIST test data have been used to develop automated systems that can correctly match fingerprints by the minutiae, or tiny details, that investigators previously had to read by hand. In cooperation with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), NIST also developed a uniform way for fingerprint, facial, scar, mark, and tattoo data to be exchanged between different jurisdictions and between dissimilar systems made by different manufacturers. In conjunction with the FBI, NIST has developed several databases, including one consisting of 258 latent fingerprints and their matching “rolled” file prints. This database can be used by researchers and commercial developers to create and test new fingerprint identification algorithms, test commercial and research systems that conform to the NIST/ANSI standard, and assist in training latent fingerprint examiners. The increasing use of specialized “live” fingerprint scanners will help ensure that a high-quality fingerprint can be captured quickly and added to the FBI’s current files. Use of these scanners also should speed up the matching of fingerprints against the FBI database of more than 40 million prints. NIST has produced a similar database to help vendors of face recognition products test the reliability of their products against a standard format. The Biometric Consortium serves as the federal government’s focal point for research, development, test, evaluation, and application of biometric-based personal identification and verification technology. The consortium now has more than 800 members, including 60 government agencies. NIST and the National Security Agency co-chair the consortium. NIST has collaborated with the consortium, the biometric industry, and other biometric organizations to create a common biometric exchange file format. The format already is part of government requirements for data interchange and is being adopted by the biometric industry. The specification is a candidate for fast track approval as an ANSI standard and as an international standard for exchange of many types of biometric data files, including data on fingerprints, faces, palm prints, retinas, and iris and voice patterns. Standards for forensic DNA typing Since the development of DNA typing methods more than 10 years ago, NIST has developed a series of Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) that can be used by forensic and commercial laboratories to check the accuracy of their analyses. The NIST SRMs include samples of human DNA that have been carefully analyzed according to a standard FBI matching method. By extracting the DNA provided in the NIST SRM and analyzing it with their own laboratory equipment and test methods, forensic and commercial laboratories can verify that their methods are accurate. NIST experts in DNA analysis met with scientists from the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) in October 2001 to discuss details of a specialized DNA analysis technique that AFIP is using to identify remains of victims at the Pentagon and Pennsylvania crash sites. NIJ officials also contacted NIST scientists for consultation on DNA analysis of human remains from the World Trade Center. A NIST forensic scientist also serves on the NIJ-convened World Trade Center Kinship and Data Analysis Panel, which is composed of 25 experts from the forensic DNA community. It was clear from the outset that the large number of victims and degraded condition of tissue samples from the attack pose particular problems for forensic DNA typing, so NIST developed a new technique using smaller portions of DNA at specific chromosome sites. The new technique improves DNA typing assays for degraded DNA and is now being compared to the methods currently used by a commercial DNA testing laboratory for the analysis of 13,000 bone fragments from the World Trade Center site. NIST also is verifying two new commercial methods that have been developed to analyze degraded DNA samples. The massive effort to identify victims from the World Trade Center—the world’s largest human identification case ever—includes a program devoted to analyzing mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), a small circular strand of genetic material located within the cells’ mitochondria, which convert nutrients into energy. Each human cell can have hundreds to several thousand molecules of mtDNA, compared to only one copy (two intertwined strands) of genomic DNA in the cell nucleus. A NIST SRM is being used for quality control in the mtDNA studies. Enhanced surveillance cameras The proper rendering of shadow and dark detail by cameras is important in many security applications, such as surveillance within airplane cabins or terminals. Cameras, however, do not work nearly as well as the human eye, which is much better at distinguishing subtle differences between varying shadows and dark details. This is particularly true when bright areas dominate the scene under view. In this situation, conventional cameras suffer from substantial amounts of glare that make it difficult to see details in shadowed areas. By mimicking the eye and surrounding the camera with liquid instead of air, NIST researchers (with interagency Technology Support Working Group funding) hope to improve the performance of surveillance cameras substantially. This, in turn, may improve the reliability of other technologies, such as face recognition within airports. Protective vests and helmets Law enforcement agencies also rely on NIST/NIJ standards for testing the performance of bullet- and knife-resistant vests, helmets, and face shields as well as car windows and body armor. These standards protect police officers by ensuring that manufacturers use reliable methods to test the quality of their products. At its ballistic research test facility, NIST develops the test methods and conducts the evaluations needed to continually improve these standards and keep up with changing materials and technologies. Standards for bullets and casings Every firearm has unique characteristics that leave an identifiable signature on the bullets and casings that it fires. By analyzing these ballistics signatures, examiners can connect a firearm to bullets or casings used during criminal or terrorist acts. Law enforcement agencies use a standard method for quickly determining if a particular bullet or casing was shot from a specific firearm. However, to improve confidence in the method’s reliability, NIST—with funding from NIJ—is developing reference material bullets and casings. Forensic labs will be able to use these specially machined bullets and casings with their own instruments and determine whether their analyses produce ballistic signatures that match those supplied by NIST. Forensic tools for investigating computer or magnetic data evidence Criminals, including terrorists, who use computers in their work frequently manipulate files in an attempt to hide or obscure their activity. For example, someone with blueprints for a targeted building might attempt to hide the true nature of the document by renaming the file to make it look like an ordinary word processing document. While computer forensics experts know these tricks, they frequently face the daunting task of searching up to 100,000 files on a single desktop computer for evidence. NIST computer scientists are helping to speed up this process dramatically with a new tool, the National Software Reference Library. Working with software manufacturers and others who provided copies of their programs, NIST collected “signature” formats for more than 6 million different computer files. These “signatures” are checked against the actual contents of the file rather than other identifiers such as the file name or header. The library allows law enforcement agencies to eliminate 25 to 95 percent of the total files in a computer, concentrating only on those that really might contain evidence. There is also a critical need in the law enforcement community to ensure the reliability of computer forensic tools, so that they consistently produce accurate and objective test results. NIST’s Computer Forensic Tool Testing (CFTT) project aims to establish a methodology for testing these software tools through the development of tool requirements specifications, test procedures, test criteria, test sets, and test hardware. The results provide the information necessary for toolmakers to improve tools, for users to make informed choices about acquiring and using computer forensics tools, and for interested parties to understand the tools’ capabilities. The approach is based on well-recognized international methodologies for conformance testing and quality testing. Several federal agencies support the effort, including the NIJ, the U.S. Secret Service, the FBI, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Defense Computer Forensics Laboratory. In another project, NIST researchers collaborated with the National Telecommunications and Information Administration on a new technique for retrieving data from damaged or altered magnetic tapes and computer disks. The method uses high-resolution magnetic sensors to map microscopic magnetic fields on a sample. The map then is used to rebuild the original magnetic signal. The researchers demonstrated the technique by recovering audio data from a tape fragment provided by the National Transportation Safety Board that was too damaged to be played in a conventional tape deck. For the FBI, they used the technique to reveal magnetic marks produced by the erase and record heads during the recording process. Such evidence could be critical for proving that an original tape or disk had been altered. Crimes involving pipebombs or handguns NIST chemists, in conjunction with the NIJ, have come up with a reliable way to associate the composition of unfired gunpowder or ammunition with residues collected at handgun or pipe bomb crime scenes. To develop the method, the NIST researchers collected gun-powder residues from handguns fired at a test range and analyzed them for nitroglycerin and stabilizer additive content. This enabled the determination of a numerical identification ratio that often can link the residues to unfired powders. In another project, NIST asked 15 forensic laboratories to analyze test samples of two commercial gunpowders. This voluntary interlaboratory comparison demonstrated the labs’ proficiency in gunpowder measurements, thereby making forensic gunpowder analysis more defensible in criminal prosecutions. As a follow-up to this work, NIST now is preparing a smokeless powder reference material that forensic laboratories will be able to use in checking the accuracy of their bomb and gunpowder residue analyses. Emergency response Protecting first responders Since the tragedies of Sept. 11, firefighters, police, and emergency medical responders are perhaps more appreciated and more depended on than ever. Existing standards for emergency responders’ protective gear were drafted with accidents—not terrorism—in mind. Even standards for military personnel protective gear cannot be applied easily to emergency first responders’ gear because battlefield and urban environments are very different. Jurisdictions all over the United States would like to purchase respirators and protective suits for first responders, but they need standards against which they can gauge how well the equipment protects against biological and chemical weapons. With funding from the NIJ, NIST is facilitating the development of a suite of national chemical and biological protective equipment standards. NIST is working with all the appropriate standards organizations to make these standards available as soon as possible. A standard for a self-contained breathing apparatus to withstand biological and chemical assault was deemed the highest priority and has been developed. Standards for other types of breathing apparatus are in the pipeline, as are standards for personal protective suits. Standards for chemical and biological detectors also have been given a high priority. As manufacturers prepare to mass-produce protective equipment, additional testing laboratories will be needed to confirm compliance with the standards. NIST then will assist in the identification of testing laboratories that are capable of performing this work. Standardization of communications for first responders Another concern for emergency responders is communication. Federal, state, and local police, fire, and rescue personnel are assigned to use widely separated radio frequencies. They also use different types of computer hardware and software systems with access to different law enforcement databases. At a large disaster site, such as the World Trade Center, responders from different agencies may not be able to use their radios to talk to each other. Other times, a police officer may let a traffic offender go with a ticket, unaware that the offender was wanted on serious charges in another jurisdiction. NIST, again with funding from the NIJ, is working with the public safety community to standardize techniques for wireless telecommunications and IT applications. NIST also is working with standards development organizations to have first responder requirements included within the scope of standardization efforts. For example, NIST is coordinating first responders’ standards needs with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers committee that is developing standard message sets for transferring information among public safety, transportation, and hazardous material incident command centers. In addition to standardization, NIST is helping other agencies select promising interim solutions and is analyzing long-term solutions, such as a software-defined radio, for research and development investment. NIST also is working on the development, deployment, and standardization of Web-based technologies for integrating sensors, real-time video, smart tags, and embedded microprocessor devices to provide next-generation personnel support for remote monitoring, control, and communications in the field. This technology can enable rapid access to real-time sensor and video information and allow sharing and collaborative use of IT applications. Wearable computers and small, embedded devices integrated with the latest technology for remote sensing, real-time conferencing, and other data intensive applications could provide an immediate feedback channel for law enforcement agents and emergency responders. NIST is working to demonstrate how these technologies can be extended and rapidly deployed to create easily configurable networks. Simulation tools When properly used, simulation tools can enhance planning and training and help personnel evaluate different response options during and after catastrophic events. Complex scenarios cannot be modeled very accurately, however, because no single simulation tool can represent all aspects of an emergency situation. Individual simulation packages and databases can address individual phenomena and behaviors, but they cannot be integrated together easily to provide an overall picture of events. To address this need, NIST is helping to establish a framework to allow a broad range of simulation systems to share information, including models and results. NIST is working with the response community, industry, and academia to identify information sources, simulation systems, and data requirements; develop an emergency response simulation framework and standard interfaces; and develop and demonstrate distributed simulations using commercial software and the new framework. The ability to integrate information from different simulations will be a valuable tool for responders and allow agencies to independently develop and coordinate emergency response simulations and scenarios. Search and rescue robots A NIST project aimed initially at protecting emergency personnel by minimizing the amount of time rescuers spend searching earthquake-damaged buildings has helped provide a new tool for rescue workers at the World Trade Center. Search-and-rescue robots had never before been used at a disaster site, and they demonstrated promise in being able to penetrate areas too small and too hazardous for humans to access. Teams of robots—led by the independent Center for Robot Assisted Search and Rescue—were able to locate full and partial remains of several victims at the World Trade Center site. Just a month before, several of the robots had run through a NIST-designed test course at the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. To provide an objective evaluation of the performance of autonomous, intelligent, mobile robots for search-and-rescue operations, NIST engineers designed and built a standard test arena for robots, complete with overturned furniture, collapsed floors, broken pipes, and mannequin “victims.” The arena has different levels of difficulty to help assess different types of robotic ability. Because the robots, built by universities and industry, compete quite literally on the same playing field, their performance can be measured objectively. Since one of NIST’s goals is to foster cooperation among robotics researchers around the world, NIST supplies its test arenas to two international robotics conferences, which include competitions to see how well search-and-rescue robots perform on the NIST arena. Winners of the annual RoboCupRescue and the American Association for Artificial Intelligence Rescue Robot competitions share their techniques so all participants can build better robots.